Introduction - The individual within an institutional context
Organizations are made up of individuals brought together to enable the organization to achieve its mission. The organization's structure will determine how these individuals are brought together and how they relate to one another. The success of the organization is dependent on each individual working together to achieve the common goal.
If individuals are pulling in different directions, this will have a detrimental impact upon the organization achieving its mission. It is the role of the manager to integrate the activities of individuals, ensuring that they are aware of the institution's priorities and that they are working towards them. Managers achieve this through the authority delegated to them within the organization's hierarchy.
This section of the Body of Quality Knowledge will outline:
- Ways in which individuals differ and the role of the manager in harnessing individual differences within an organizational context
- How individuals are structured within an organization to enable it to achieve its mission and how authority is legitimised through the structure
- How jobs are defined and designed within an organization
Individual differences
We are all different. We differ in many ways, some of them visual (age, gender) some of them non-visual (personality, abilities). These differences mean that we often have different values and attitudes on certain issues and individuals will perceive situations in different ways.
Different perspectives
It can be interesting and rewarding to discuss a topic from another point of view and to gain insight into other perspectives. But diversity can also be challenging and it can sometimes be difficult to understand things from a different point of reference. From an individual perspective, it is important to understand and appreciate that not everyone will see things or value the things that you do, nor agree with your opinions.
Issues of different perspectives and how these influence how we communicate are further discussed in Communications.
Personality
We all have a number of characteristics that influence how we behave. We classify people by their personality and often talk about them being strong, a good laugh and dependable or shallow, moody and insecure. We expect that people remain constant in their personality and therefore changes in characteristics can be observed. For example we talk about someone acting 'out of character' or 'not being his/herself'. This can often be as a result of frustration or stress. These aspects are developed later in this section.
Within an organizational context, this stability in characteristics is important. We would expect people to behave in a stable way to ensure continuity in meeting business objectives. Additionally, certain characteristics will be more suited to a particular job than others. We will have been chosen for our job because of certain characteristics we display. For example, we would not want to employ a manager who is withdrawn, unable to communicate or make decisions. Personality can therefore be an important factor in the recruitment and selection process. Personality traits required for a job will often be outlined in a person specification and our personality will be observed and evaluated through the interview process and may be assessed using psychometric testing.
There are two main approaches to the study of personality. One approach, nomothetic, centres on personality as a collection of identifiable and measurable characteristics. This approach identifies personality as consistent, largely inherited and resistant to change. Therefore it is possible to predict the way in which a certain personality type will behave in a certain situation.
The other approach, idiographic, centres on personality development as a dynamic process. We respond to our environment and this influences our personality. How we react will depend on the individual so we cannot study and predict how people will behave in certain circumstances.
Theoretical perspectives on personality differences and their use in the recruitment and selection process are further developed in the members pages section.
Competency and ability
Different jobs require different abilities, skills and competencies. When we assign someone to a job that does not match their abilities, because the job is either not sufficiently demanding or too demanding, the result can be frustration and stress for both the individual and their work colleagues.
In a situation where an individual's abilities do not match the requirements of the job because they are in some way lacking, then the individual will feel out of their depth. This has an impact on the individual who feels unable to complete their tasks to the required and expected levels of performance. The team will also be affected by the situation. They will often have to take on extra work and duties in order to support their colleague.
In a situation where an individual's abilities exceed those required for the job, then the individual may find the job too easy and become bored. This leads to a lack of enthusiasm and care for the job and a sense of frustration for the individual feeling unable to achieve their potential. Again this frustration impacts upon the rest of the team and ultimately their performance.
Competency, ability and performance management are all further expanded in Performance management.
Motivation and frustration are further developed in Leadership, empowerment, motivation and teamworking.
Responses to stress
Stress is a very individual concept and our responses to it can vary considerably. We all find different situations stressful and we all react to them in a variety of ways. Some people are stress victims. They perceive almost every situation in life as a threat and they respond negatively to situations causing them anxiety, anger, self-doubt or frustration. Others view situations more positively. They assess situations and channel their energies into a proactive response spurring them on to achieve their goals.
Our response to stress depends on a balance between how demanding a potentially stressful situation is perceived to be and our ability to cope with it. Too big an imbalance and we will suffer negative stress. This ability to cope with stress is influenced by our outlook on life, our health and our support system which includes friends and relatives. Therefore, a situation that may be stressful to one individual, may be exhilarating and exciting to another, and indeed our reactions to stressful situations and how we cope with them varies throughout our life.
Different things can cause us stress. These are defined as stressors and include:
- Lifestyle stressors. Things that happen in our day-to-day life can cause us stress. These can include family relationship difficulties, money worries, constantly sitting in traffic jams or standing in a long queue at the bank. Even seemingly insignificant lifestyle stressors can build up over time and cause stress.
- Thought stressors. The way we think about things influences our ability to cope with stress. Feelings of inadequacy, constantly striving for perfection and a disposition to worry all impact on our thought processes and how we perceive and cope with stress.
- Body stressors. The state of our physical condition has an impact on how able we are to cope with stress. When our physical defences are weakened, we are more vulnerable to the physical impacts of stress.
- Work stressors. Our working environment, attitude to work, the type of job we do and how 'happy' we are in our work all impact on our stress levels.
- Change stressors. Changes in our circumstances also cause us stress. Getting a new job, finding a new partner, getting divorced, having children, the death of a friend or relative. Some can cope with these changes better than others. However, when we have to deal with a number of changes within a short period of time, this puts a strain on us and can make us vulnerable both physically and emotionally.
Stress impacts on us in a number of ways and can show as:
- physical signs such as headaches, backache, stomach problems, allergies
- psychological signs such as impatience, anger, frustration, difficulty sleeping
- behaviour changes including taking time off work, avoiding situations or being with certain people, eating/drinking/smoking more or less than usual
Stress in the workplace is now a significant factor impacting upon individual, team and organizational performance. It is therefore important that as individuals we are aware of the things that cause us stress and how we react. It is also important that managers are aware of the sources of workplace stress and the measures they can put in place to alleviate workplace stress.
Factors impacting upon workplace stress are further developed in the members pages section.
Managing individual differences
Within an organizational setting, it is not surprising that individuals will view their work, the organization itself and the people they work with in different ways. It is the role of the manager to manage this diversity and to reconcile the needs and values of the individual with the needs and values of the organization to encourage creativity and vision and minimise frustration and conflict.
Leadership and management are further developed in Leadership, empowerment, motivation and teamworking.
Individual authority, responsibility and accountability.
Organizational structure
Organizations co-ordinate and control the activities of individuals through an organizational structure. This structure influences the jobs that people do, the roles they perform, how information flows through the organization, how different jobs relate to one another and who has authority within the organization. Two important aspects of structure are span of control and chain of command.
Span of control
The span of control refers to the number of subordinates who directly report to a single manager and for whose work that manager is responsible. If the span is too broad then the manager will have too many subordinates reporting directly to him/her making it difficult for the manager to co-ordinate their efforts effectively. If the span of control is too narrow, then subordinates may feel that there is too much direct involvement and contact with their manager.
Chain of command
This is the number of different levels of authority to be found in an organization - the organization's hierarchy. An organizational hierarchy with few levels is considered a 'flat' structure and one with many levels is considered a 'tall' structure.
Authority
Authority is the legitimate right to direct and control the actions of others. Within an organization, authority is delegated to positions within the organizational structure. Authority flows from the top of the structure to the bottom with subordinates at each level accepting and complying with requests because they understand that the authority holder has a legitimate right to exercise this authority. Authority therefore, travels down the chain of command with those at the top of the chain having more authority than managers below them. For this reason, lower level managers will have to request permission from managers further up the chain to perform certain actions.
Responsibility
Responsibility is the obligation placed on us within the organizational structure to perform a specific task, function or assignment. Each position within an organization will have assigned responsibilities and it is the duty of the position holder to discharge these responsibilities satisfactorily. Managers also take on the responsibilities of their subordinates.
Accountability
Each level of subordinates within the hierarchy has an obligation to feedback truthfully to their managers on the discharge of their responsibilities. We are accountable for performing our duties satisfactorily within the scope of our responsibilities. Managers are ultimately accountable for the performance of their subordinates.
Role
We all take on a number of different roles. Some of these are personal and others are work-related. Within each of these roles, we interact with a number of different people. This is known as our 'role-set'. Our role-set will have a number of expectations about how we should behave, what we should do, what rights we have and how much authority we have. In addition, we also have a self-perception about the same expectations based on our values, our beliefs and our experiences.
Let us take the example of a female quality manager within an organization. She would take on a number of work-related roles such as project manager, company ambassador, administrator, figurehead for the quality department and line manager. Within each of these roles she would interact with a number of others such as customers, suppliers, subordinates, directors and other departments. These are her role-set and each of these will have expectations about how she performs her role. For example, as a senior manager within the organization's hierarchy, she would be expected to make decisions, be organized, lead by example and have integrity. She would also have a self-perception of how she is expected to behave. In addition to this she will assume a number of personal roles such as parent, child, sibling and friend.
Role conflict occurs when our actual situation and behaviour is not consistent with either our or our role-set's expected behaviour and this can lead to role stress. Using the example above, this could occur when the quality manager cannot carry out all of the roles effectively because she has too many roles, she finds that she cannot meet everyone's expectations because they are so different, or because the role turns out to be not as she had expected. These concepts are further developed in the members pages section.
Sources of power and how we react to power are further developed in the members pages section.
Issues of role conflict are further developed in the members pages section.
Job design
Defining jobs
In order for an organization to operate and function effectively, there are a number of tasks that the organization needs to perform. It needs to produce, sell, manage its human resources and comply with legislation. These key tasks can be broken down into a number of sub-tasks that can then be allocated to individual jobs and the job allocated to a position within the organizational hierarchy. This process generally results in the production of a job description. The specialisation of work tasks and their division into jobs will be dependent on the size and the nature of the organization.
Job description
Job descriptions outline the purpose, scope, responsibilities and tasks for a specified job. The level of detail required for a job description is a question of balance. On the one hand, there is an argument for a vague and fluid job description that allows the jobholder to develop the job as required. On the other hand, it is important that the jobholder is clear about their responsibilities and therefore the job description needs to be detailed.
Person specification
Organizations will usually outline the abilities and skills they require for a particular job by producing a person specification. There are a number of different formats for person specifications but usually they will outline the qualifications, experience, personal attributes and disposition required for a particular job. This is usually split between essential characteristics and desirable characteristics. Candidates can then be objectively measured against this specification with the most suitable candidates being invited for interview.
Some professions specify the skills, abilities and competencies required for certain occupations in a competency framework against which occupations can be measured. Many professional bodies also specify a competency framework against which they can measure their members.
Job design and the organization
Job design is important for both the organization and the individual. From an organizational perspective, it is important that all jobs are designed in an efficient and effective way. This will ensure that the organization is getting optimum performance from its workforce.
There are a number of factors to consider in job design:
- Does the job fit in with the rest of the organization? Overlaps in job design or gaps in design can lead to conflict and confusion within an organization. If there is overlap, then conflict will occur between jobholders. This is also not an efficient use of the organization's resources. Gaps in design will lead to key tasks not being fully achieved and will impact on the organization's performance and reputation.
- Is the job sufficiently demanding? If a job is routine and boring with little challenge or opportunity to develop, it is unlikely that the jobholder will feel fulfilled in such a role. This may lead to feelings of frustration and stress. It is important that job designers consider the nature and variety of the job.
- Is the job too demanding? At the design stage, it is important that the amount of work being required is considered. It is also important to consider the position within the hierarchy. If a job is too demanding then the jobholder may not be able to cope with the amount of work and will suffer frustration and stress.
- Does the jobholder have sufficient control over what they do? Lack of control is a key workplace stressor. It is important that we have some control over the work that we do.
Job design and the individual
From an individual perspective, the way in which jobs are designed impacts upon how satisfied the jobholder will feel with the work that they do and also how motivated they are to achieve their full potential. Individuals also need to consider if there is a match between the job and the individual's lifestyle. With the introduction of flexible working practices, more and more organizations and individuals are considering how jobs are designed and how well-matched the job is with the individual and their circumstances.
Flexible working and work life balance are further developed in the members' pages section.
Professional institutes
Professional bodies play an important role in society in developing their individual members, providing support for organizations and in developing the skills of the sector they represent.
The individual
Professional bodies promote the lifelong development of their members by helping to keep members up to date with changes and developments in their specialised field and encouraging knowledge transfer and the exchange of ideas through education, training and networking. Individuals also benefit from the social networking and the feeling of belonging to a specialist 'club'.
The organization
Members of professional bodies adhere to a code of professional practice that sets standards of conduct, integrity and competence. From an organizational perspective, specifying membership of a relevant professional body as part of the recruitment process, can give the organization an objective measure against which to 'measure' candidates. Members will have a certain standard of knowledge and competence and will act with integrity. Organizations can also promote membership of professional bodies to ensure their workforce is up to date with the latest developments in their specialist fields.
Industry sector
Professional bodies make a contribution to the development of National Occupational Standards in their area of work. They promote the professionalism of the sector and influence employers and policy decision makers in the sector.
The benefits of membership of the CQI are outlined here:
http://www.thecqi.org/membership/
Further developments in the members pages section
The members pages section of the Body of Knowledge is only available to members of the CQI. This section further expands on the following:
- theoretical perspectives on personality and how personality is assessed through the recruitment and selection process
- sources of workplace stress
- sources of organizational power and reactions to power
- role conflict
- flexible working practices and the work/life balance debate
References
I have selected a number of texts and websites that I feel will give useful and additional information on the topics outlined in this section.
Texts
Boddy, D (2005) Management an Introduction, Financial Times Prentice Hall.
This is an excellent introductory text for anyone who is new to management or who wants to develop their knowledge and understanding of management issues.
Mullins, L (2006) Essentials of Organizational Behaviour, Financial Times Prentice Hall.
This is a summarised version of the fuller Laurie Mullin text - Management and Organizational Behaviour. This is an excellent reference source for anyone who wants to develop their knowledge and understanding of how organizations behave and the role of the manager in co-ordinating team and individual behaviour.
Needham, A (2002) Stress Management Kit, Eddison Sadd Editions Ltd.
This is a useful stress reference book and relaxation tape for those who want to learn more about managing stress.
Websites
www.managers.org.uk The website of the Chartered Management Institute
This is a useful website which has free access to a number of research reports on various management issues.
www.i-l-m.com The website for the Institute of Leadership and Management
This is a useful website which has free access to a number of articles on a variety of management topics.
www.bbc.co.uk The BBC website.
This site includes sections on motivation, stress, anxiety, confidence and health. It also has a number of interactive quizzes to assess individual responses.
www.eoc.org.uk The website of the Equal Opportunities Commission.
This is a very useful website for checking out the legislation regarding workplace diversity. It also has some useful free downloadable resources.